NCT04902924

Cold and Warm Water for Performance Recovery

Completed NA Results posted Last updated 7 October 2025

What this trial tests

NA trial testing repeated cold water therapy in Healthy in 30 participants. Completed in 1 May 2022.

Timeline

1 October 2021

Primary endpoint
30 April 2022

1 May 2022

Quick facts

Lead sponsor	University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland
Phase	NA
Status	Completed
Study type	INTERVENTIONAL
Allocation	randomized
Design	parallel
Masking	none
Primary purpose	basic science
Enrollment	30
Start date	1 October 2021
Primary completion	30 April 2022
Estimated completion	1 May 2022
Sites	1 location across Switzerland

Drugs / interventions tested

• repeated cold water therapy
• repeated warm water therapy
• control

Conditions studied

• Healthy — all drugs for Healthy →

Sponsor

University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland

Who can join

Adults 18 to 35, female only, with Healthy. Patients with the condition only — healthy volunteers not accepted.

Results — posted to ClinicalTrials.gov

Per-arm endpoint measurements with 95% confidence intervals where reported. Source: trial results section.

Maximum Voluntary Isometric Contraction (N) Primary · baseline to 72 hours

maximun voluntary isometric contraction of the knee extensor muscle will be assessed.

BL

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	54.8	± 14.9
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	65.8	± 11.6
Control	52.2	± 14.1

24h

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	33.8	± 13.9
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	41.1	± 11.4
Control	29.3	± 8.7

48h

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	41.8	± 16.4
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	47.9	± 10.3
Control	34.7	± 12.3

72h

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	45.0	± 17.0
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	54.5	± 11.8
Control	40.4	± 13.2

Delayed Onset of Muscle Soreness (DOMS) Primary · baseline to 72 hours

delayed onset of muscle soreness will be measured using a 0-10 scale, where 0 indicated no soreness and 10 indicates maximum soreness of the knee extensor muscles

BL

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	0.1	± 0.1
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	0.1	± 0.1
Control	0.1	± 0.1

24h

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	6.3	± 2.6
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	6.1	± 2.5
Control	6.3	± 2.7

48h

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	5.0	± 2.8
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	5.9	± 3.0
Control	6.1	± 3.1

72h

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	2.9	± 2.6
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	4.6	± 3.1
Control	3.3	± 2.3

Muscle Swelling Primary · baseline to 72 hours

swelling of the knee extensor muscle will be performed using a ultrasound device.

BL

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	4.3	± 0.5
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	4.8	± 0.6
Control	4.6	± 0.5

24h

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	4.6	± 0.5
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	5.2	± 0.6
Control	4.8	± 0.6

48h

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	4.5	± 0.5
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	5.1	± 0.5
Control	4.7	± 0.6

72h

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	4.4	± 0.5
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	5.0	± 0.6
Control	4.6	± 0.6

Creatine-kinase (U/l) Primary · baseline to 72 hours

using a blood sample (6 ml), creatine-kinase will be assessed

BL

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	111.0	± 41.5
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	214.3	± 180.9
Control	119.8	± 50.2

24h

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	573.5	± 488.9
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	820.6	± 517.7
Control	455.0	± 318.2

48h

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	335.4	± 256.9
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	441.2	± 349.2
Control	288.3	± 200.9

72h

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	205.9	± 146.2
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	314.3	± 321.8
Control	191.4	± 118.1

Muscle Blood Oxygenation Primary · through recovery intervention up to 30 minutes

Muscle oxygenation saturation (SmO2) of the knee extensor muscle will be measured using near-infrared spectroscopy device. Oxygenated haemoglobin (oxyHb), deoxygenated haemoglobin (deoxyHb) and total haemoglobin (TotHb) were assessed in arbitrary units and SmO2 was calculated as oxyHb/TotHb x 100 value (%)

BL

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	68.7	± 4.4
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	68.8	± 3.8
Control	70.0	± 3.7

post exercise

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	70.4	± 7.7
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	71.1	± 7.1
Control	73.4	± 5.9

post Intervention

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	76.6	± 5.8
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	76.6	± 3.4
Control	74.0	± 4.8

10min

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	73.6	± 5.3
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	75.5	± 5.1
Control	75.0	± 5.4

20min

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	67.8	± 2.7
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	74.7	± 3.2
Control	73.5	± 6.6

30min

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	64.4	± 6.4
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	74.4	± 3.9
Control	73.0	± 6.1

Skin Temperature (°C) Primary · through recovery intervention up to 30 minutes

Skin temperature will be measured using a near infrared thermography camera

BL

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	30.6	± 0.9
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	31.2	± 1.1
Control	30.9	± 0.9

post Exercise

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	30.0	± 0.9
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	29.9	± 1.0
Control	29.5	± 1.7

post Intervention

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	15.2	± 2.5
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	35.2	± 0.7
Control	31.8	± 1.0

10min

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	24.8	± 1.2
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	35.3	± 0.5
Control	32.3	± 0.8

20min

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	27.9	± 1.1
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	34.9	± 0.5
Control	32.4	± 0.8

30min

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	29.2	± 1.0
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	34.8	± 0.7
Control	32.5	± 0.9

Core Temperature (°C) Primary · through recovery intervention up to 30 minutes

core temperature will be measured using temperature pill that will provide real time values from the gastrointestinal region

BL

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	37.1	± 0.4
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	37.1	± 0.2
Control	36.8	± 0.4

post Exercise

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	38.5	± 0.2
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	38.4	± 0.3
Control	38.3	± 0.2

post Intervention

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	37.9	± 0.2
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	38.5	± 0.3
Control	37.9	± 0.3

10 min

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	37.6	± 0.2
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	37.8	± 0.2
Control	37.5	± 0.2

20 min

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	37.3	± 0.2
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	37.5	± 0.2
Control	37.3	± 0.2

30 min

Group	Value	95% CI
Repeated Cold-water Immersion	37.2	± 0.2
Repeated Warm-water Immersion	37.5	± 0.2
Control	37.2	± 0.1

Sponsor's own description

The overall aim of this study is, to evaluate the effectiveness of repeated cold- and warm water immersion on performance recovery after muscle damage.

Publications & conference data

2 peer-reviewed publications reference this trial (live from Europe PMC):

1. No acceleration of recovery from exercise-induced muscle damage after cold or hot water immersion in women: A randomised controlled trial.
   Wellauer V, Clijsen R, Bianchi G, Riggi E, et al · · 2025 · cited 1× · PMID 40333546 · DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322416
2. Acute physiological responses and muscle recovery in females: a randomised controlled trial of muscle damaging exercise in hypoxia.
   Hohenauer E, Bianchi G, Wellauer V, Taube W, et al · · 2024 · PMID 38520001 · DOI 10.1186/s13102-024-00861-1